When Samuel Huntington’s article titled “The Clash of Civilizations” was first published in 1993, four years before the release of his famous book, the topic sparked intense discussions but also skepticism, as no one could predict or imagine what would happen on September 11, 2001, and afterward, with the escalation of terrorist attacks and acts of blind violence.

What is the relationship between religion, and particularly religious fundamentalism, with terrorism and the culture of violence? A series of recent events show that the global society will increasingly be confronted with religious violence. Many researchers, such as Mark Juergensmeyer, argue that religious terrorism rarely constitutes merely a part of a political strategy. It is usually an act with strong symbolism, aimed at boosting self-confidence and giving a sense of power to marginalized communities of people.

This does not mean that powerful political groups are not attracted to or disdain the importance and power of religion in advancing their political goals. The White House, with its neoconservative leadership, serves as the best example of the influence of religion on domestic political processes. For President Bush, devotion to religion is a living expression of his presidential power. As Bill Keller notably wrote in the Herald Tribune the other day, when the President of the United States concludes his speeches with the customary phrase “God bless America,” other nations imagine that he means “to hell with everybody else.”

It is particularly interesting to see how religious fundamentalism affects the lives of women and how it influences the struggle for equal participation of both sexes in political, social, and economic life. The European Parliament has repeatedly addressed this issue and has adopted relevant resolutions.

Almost all major religions have, at some point in their history, functioned as means of limiting the role of women in society. The insistence on promoting the supposed inferiority of women in the teachings of certain religions is so widespread that many today believe that religious beliefs often end up being incompatible with any attempt at gender equality in our society. Of course, Christianity was not exempt from the widespread devaluation and marginalization of women, despite the fact that Christian teachings represented a revolution against the prevailing order of the time and, of course, against patriarchy. It is a fact that in the early Christian years, women played an active role in establishing the new religion, but over time, their role was significantly restricted.

Fundamentalism, as a concept and movement, emerged in the 1920s in the United States, and its main characteristics are the rejection of modernity and blind obedience to religious principles and traditions, which are placed above the laws of the rule of law and citizens’ rights. Today, fundamentalism appears in various forms (religious, political, ideological) and permeates religions and doctrines, poisoning our daily lives even within the boundaries of Europe. Many argue that religious fanaticism and terrorism are two sides of the same coin. However, it seems to have been erased from European collective memory that before fundamentalism was associated (by the West) with Islam, it referred to extreme views stemming from Christian traditions. Fundamentalists feel they are fighting against forces that threaten their most sacred values, and they experience modernization and the development of science and technology not as a liberating process but as an attack on the fundamental laws of their existence. Instead of looking to the future, they search in the past for security and inspiration. Certainly, fundamentalist practices are not limited to Afghan burqas.

It is certain that irrationality, attachment to the values of the past, and intolerance hinder any attempt at the emancipation of women. Fanatics have always seen women’s rights as a threat to the prevailing male-centered order and as a destruction of the family, which they considered solely a woman’s responsibility. Even today, fundamentalists, across the globe, present the control of women’s sexuality and reproduction as their main goal and political demand. The criminalization of abortion was one of the contentious issues on the political agenda of the United States during the last presidential elections. Often, those who claim to be “pro-life” are the same ones who, with equal fanaticism, support the death penalty, arms buildup, violence, and a harsh, pro-war foreign policy.

In Muslim societies, references to human rights do not include the rights of women, which are systematically violated. One of the most common crimes is the so-called “honor killings.” It is estimated that around 5,000 women and girls are murdered every year by male members of their families. The perpetrators often go unpunished in countries where such violence is considered an acceptable way to control women’s behavior, rather than a serious crime. In these societies, the patriarchal family structure places women and their sexuality under the absolute control of the male members of the family. Female children become victims of discrimination from the moment they are born, as they are considered a misfortune for the family, in contrast to the birth of male children, which is seen as a gift from God. Of course, this treatment is not entirely unknown in our own society.

The application of inhumane, violent, and humiliating punishments for women, such as flogging and stoning, is a common practice in many countries in the name of religious traditions, which are often misinterpreted. Recently, we witnessed the sentencing to death by stoning of women for adultery in Nigeria and Sudan by local religious courts, which apply different moral codes and standards for the two sexes.

The denial of recognition of basic freedoms and rights for women in Islamic countries is based on the application of Sharia law, which takes precedence over even constitutionally guaranteed rights, as these are considered divine in nature and origin. The application of Sharia can cover many aspects of life: individual and family status, choice of spouse, polygamy, guardianship of children, the right to vote and be elected, etc. Many elements of Islamic faith are also found in Christian texts, as well as in Jewish ones (Talmud).

As for the European context, unfortunately, even today, by adopting a general rejection of any association between Christianity and fundamentalism, we have not dared to address the issues arising in various European countries (Portugal, Ireland, Poland) with the imposition of restrictions on women’s freedom to control their own bodies and choose if and when they want to have children. History has shown that many fundamentalist movements in the third world were born as a reaction to the cultural model that colonial powers and certain Western fundamentalists sought to impose.

In Europe, a particular issue is the situation of migrant women. The rights arising from the family law of the European Union member states must, in all cases, take precedence over the law (customary or otherwise) of the country of origin of the migrants, which often permits the violation of fundamental rights of women. According to data from the Medical Association, 3,000 female genital mutilation procedures are performed every year in the United Kingdom, while the majority of migrant women coming to Europe are from countries where genital mutilation is practiced. However, among the EU countries, only the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Germany have legislation that punishes this horrific practice.

Certainly, there is a need to address politically religious fanaticism, of which women have been and remain the primary victims, and measures must be taken. The rights of women, which are protected by international treaties and conventions, cannot be violated under the pretext of religious interpretations, cultural traditions, customs, or legislations. No religion, no tradition, and no doctrine can be above human rights and fundamental freedoms.

Experience has shown that there can be no social modernization and economic development without modernization and progress at the level of ideas and culture. Therefore, any attempts at modernization within strictly economic and technological frameworks, while preserving the foundations of outdated patriarchal societies, are doomed to failure. The process of women’s emancipation and liberation is directly linked to the historical development of humanity and progress.

The Christian religion, based on the new realities created by the recognition of women’s rights and the principle of gender equality, should renounce discriminatory treatment and violence against women by taking appropriate initiatives.

Certainly, the best defense against the forces of intolerance is the strengthening of the secular nature of the state and the rule of law in modern multicultural societies. We need to reinforce the exercise of democratic freedoms, the acceptance of ideological and cultural diversity, gender equality in all areas, solidarity, respect for difference, and the free expression of ideas, religious beliefs, and ways of life.

In conclusion, I would like to emphasize that the respect for women’s rights worldwide and the fight against violence are among the greatest challenges of our time. Promoting a global campaign to secure these rights would perhaps be the best political response to the fundamentalists and the nostalgics of the Middle Ages.

Bibliography

1. 1. Anna Karamanou “Women as targets of fanatics,” Eleftherotypia, 8.3.2002
2. 2. Anna Karamanou – Opinion of the Committee on Citizens’ Rights regarding women and fundamentalism, 13.03.2002
3. 3. María Izquierdo Rojo – Report of the Committee on Women’s Rights and Equal Opportunities regarding women and fundamentalism, Plenary of the European Parliament 13.03.2002
4. 4. Anne Van Lancker – Report of the Committee on Women’s Rights and Equal Opportunities on health and rights in sexual life and reproduction, Plenary of the European Parliament 03.07.2002
5. 5. Elena Valenciano Martinez – Report of the Committee on Women’s Rights and Equal Opportunities on female genital mutilation, Plenary of the European Parliament 20.09.2001
6. 6. “Virus” Eleftherotypia, “The European face of fundamentalism” 11.05.2002
7. 7. Bill Keller “How religion influences the president”, Herald Tribune, 19.05.2003
8. 8. Μark Juergensmeyer, “Terror in the Mind of God”, University of California Press, 2000
9. 9. Karen Armstrong “The Battle for God” Hammersmith, London, 2001
10. 10. James Gilligan “Preventing Violence” Thames & Hudson, 2001

Anna Karamanou

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