Women in Southeastern Europe
EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT
Summit document
FINAL
A5-0182/2004
24 March 2004
REPORT
Regarding women in Southeastern Europe
(2003/2128(INI))
Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality
Presenter: Anna Karamanou
CONTENTS.
Page
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE PROCEDURE……………………………………………………………………………………. 4
DRAFT RESOLUTION OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT …………………………….. 5
EXPLANATORY REPORT ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 13
HISTORY OF THE PROCEDURE
At the session of September 4, 2003, the President of the Parliament announced that the Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality had been authorized to draw up an initiative report, in accordance with Article 163 of the Rules of Procedure, on women in Southeastern Europe.
At its meeting on June 11, 2003, the committee appointed Anna Karamanu as rapporteur.
At its meetings on November 27, 2003, February 19, 2004, and March 16, 2004, the committee examined the draft report.
At the last-mentioned meeting, the committee unanimously approved the draft resolution.
The following members were present during the vote: Anna Karamanu (chair, rapporteur), Marianne Eriksson (vice-chair), Olga Zrihen Zaari (vice-chair), María Antonia Avilés Perea, Regina Bastos, Ródi Kratsa-Tsagaropoulou, Maria Martens, Amalia Sartori, Miet Smet, Lissy Gröner, Joke Swiebel, Feleknas Uca, Patsy Sörensen, Marie-Hélène Gillig, Anne E.M. Van Lancker.
The report was submitted on March 24, 2004.
DRAFT RESOLUTION OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT
Regarding women in Southeastern Europe
(2003/2128(INI))
The European Parliament,
– having regard to Articles 6 and 49 of the Treaty on European Union,
– having regard to the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union,
– having regard to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1979,
– having regard to the work of the Vienna Conference on Human Rights (1993), which reaffirmed human rights and condemned the violation of these rights in the name of culture or tradition,
– having regard to the Brussels Declaration of September 20, 2002, on the prevention and combating of human trafficking,
– having regard to the conclusions of the Thessaloniki Summit of June 19-20, 2003, and the Joint Declaration of the EU-Western Balkans Summit of June 21, 2003,
– having regard to the periodic reports of the Commission in 2003 on the progress of Bulgaria, Romania, and Turkey on their path to accession,
– having regard to the opinion of the Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality on the Stabilisation and Association Process for Southeastern Europe: First Annual Report 1,
– having regard to the Commission’s annual report on the Stabilisation and Association Process for Southeastern Europe: Second Annual Report (COM(2003) 139),
– having regard to its resolution of November 20, 2003, on this report2,
– having regard to the activities and progress report of the Special Group on Gender Issues operating within the framework of the Stability Pact for Southeastern Europe (May 2003),
– having regard to the study on the position of women in the Balkan countries: comparative perspectives, conducted by Ms. Marina Blagojevic on behalf of the European Parliament (Belgrade, February 2003),
– having regard to Article 163 of its Rules of Procedure,
– having regard to the report of the Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality (A5‑0182/2004),
Generally
1. Believes that the countries of Southeastern Europe must necessarily integrate the gender equality dimension into their strategies for stabilization, democratization, and negotiations, in all areas of economic, political, and social life, and adopt measures to combat discrimination against women in all areas of the public and private sectors;
2. Stresses the importance of legally enshrining gender equality and ensuring appropriate conditions and mechanisms for the implementation of the legislation (institutional, financial, and human resources, as well as knowledge on gender policy);
3. Having regard to the importance of respecting human rights and minorities in this sensitive region of the Balkans, calls on the countries of the region and potential EU member states to sign and ratify the 1950 Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, as well as the 1979 United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW);
4. Expresses concern that many NGOs and international organizations report a significant increase in trafficking in Southeastern Europe and emphasizes the need for the full implementation of the commitments made by the Ministers of the Interior and Justice of the Southeastern European countries, who met in Sofia in December 2003 as part of the fourth regional ministerial meeting of the Stability Pact Task Force on Trafficking, to work together to establish and implement specific mechanisms for the protection of victims of trafficking.
5. Expresses concern that domestic violence and abusive references to women in the media are common phenomena in all the countries of Southeastern Europe, and that various national reports indicate that the countries of this region are still in the early stages of organizing the fight against the different forms of violence against women (from verbal to physical) and gender-based discrimination;
6. Stresses that nationalist policies, which often treat women as “reproductive machines,” threaten women’s reproductive and sexual rights, and that the particularly harsh living conditions resulting from wars and painful transitions, the “survival economy,” which relies on the intensive exploitation of female human resources, the increase in violence against women, and the fact that healthcare systems in many countries of the region have collapsed, have put women’s health at risk, especially women in rural areas and women belonging to minorities; draws attention to the generally poor state of healthcare structures and the continually decreasing investments in healthcare systems;
7. Expresses satisfaction with the significant improvement in life expectancy, but condemns the fact that Turkey, Bulgaria, and Romania continue to allocate the smallest percentage of their budgets (between 2.9% and 5%) for healthcare expenditures;
8. Calls on the Commission to promote the participation of the countries of Southeastern Europe, as in the case of the pre-accession strategy, of candidate states, in Community programs for the promotion of gender equality, and in particular the Community action programs for: a) gender equality (2001-2005), b) the fight against discrimination (2001-2006), and c) preventive measures against violence towards children, adolescents, and women (DAPHNE);
9. Expresses concern that, in most countries of Southeastern Europe, the percentage of women participating in political life is currently less than 20%, which, compared to other regions of Europe, represents the highest percentage of exclusion of women from decision-making positions; calls for the adoption of special measures by governments and political parties (campaigns, quotas, legislation, etc.) to achieve a more balanced gender representation in democratic institutions;
10. Expresses concern that the economic recession in the region has a greater impact on women than on men and that poverty is increasingly becoming a “female issue”; emphasizes that poverty and unemployment, combined with the traditionally patriarchal organization of society, are the root causes of high rates of prostitution and trafficking of women, as well as violence against women;
11. Stresses that the female human resource – of fairly high quality due to the generally good educational level of women – is not being utilized to the extent it should be for the economic, social, and cultural development of the region, due to discrimination and prejudice against women;
12. Calls on the governments of Southeastern Europe, in light of the growing religious fundamentalism and the return to the patriarchal organization of societies, to guarantee respect for fundamental freedoms and human rights, freedom of thought, conscience, and religion, as well as to ensure that tradition will not limit personal autonomy or lead to the violation of women’s rights and the principle of gender equality;
13. Calls on the countries of Southeastern Europe to ensure in the best and most effective possible way that teaching materials, the media, and advertising do not promote the model of patriarchal society that undermines women’s rights, but instead contribute to the portrayal of a positive image of women, with respect for their dignity and the principle of equality between women and men;
14. Considering that women can play a crucial role in conflict prevention and resolution, as well as in peacebuilding processes, by creating bridges in the minds of citizens with the aim of fostering a climate of reconciliation, respect for differences, peaceful coexistence of ethnicities, and a shared vision, calls on the countries of the region to integrate the gender dimension into negotiations for the prevention and resolution of conflicts, peacekeeping activities, and efforts for restoration and reconstruction;
15. Calls for support to be given to regional women’s networks and their cooperation with corresponding networks in the EU;
16. Expresses concern about the lack of statistical data and research results, which are essential for policy formulation, monitoring, and proper assessment of the situation of women in these countries; proposes the establishment of permanent contacts through the Commission’s delegations with relevant local, national, and international bodies and NGOs active in the region, in order to collect the necessary data on gender equality issues and the situation of women.
17. Recognizes and supports the work of women’s NGOs as well as the Gender Task Force of the Stability Pact for Southeastern Europe, particularly in the areas of combating trafficking and increasing women’s participation in political and economic decision-making.
Albania
18. Expresses regret that it has long been established that Albania is a country of origin and transit for trafficked women and children, through well-organized criminal networks, whose activities are facilitated by the high levels of corruption in the country; calls on the Albanian government to intensify its efforts to address the problems of corruption and the sexual exploitation of women and children.
19. Emphasizes that there is no reliable data on the issue of domestic violence and sexual harassment of women in Albania, which is due to the lack of understanding that violence against women constitutes a violation of their rights; calls on the Albanian government to collect the relevant data and to conduct a systematic analysis of them.
20. Expresses concern about the revival of traditional practices in Northern Albania that result in the worsening of living conditions for girls and young women;
Bulgaria
21. Welcomes the establishment of the Advisory Committee on Equal Opportunities for Men and Women and the Committee for the Prevention of Discrimination, based on the new law on the fight against discrimination, but reminds that Bulgaria is the only candidate country that does not have enforcement mechanisms in the area of gender equality, a necessary condition for the proper transposition of the EU acquis.
22. Notes that Bulgaria has the lowest employment rate compared to other candidate countries (46.1% for women and 55% for men); calls on its government to implement policies and measures to eliminate the gender pay gap and increase women’s participation in the labor market, as well as in decision-making and governance in the country.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
23. Expresses regret over the increase in trafficking and sexual exploitation of women and children, especially following the arrival of peacekeeping forces in the country; calls on the country to negotiate and conclude as soon as possible the agreements necessary for effective cooperation between law enforcement authorities with Europol.
24. Expresses regret that tolerance of violence against women is increasing, and that this is due, among other factors, to negative traditions and practices stemming from the patriarchal organization of society; welcomes the efforts being made to approve legislation that will punish domestic violence.
25. Calls on the Commission to develop actions and plans to combat trafficking and violence against women, and to insist on the participation of local women’s organizations and initiatives.
Croatia
26. Notes with concern the slow pace at which the judicial authorities in the country are moving to prosecute individuals accused of committing any form of violence against women, and calls on the Croatian government to take measures to address the inefficiency of the justice system and ensure the prosecution of crimes involving violence against women.
27. Calls on Croatia to strengthen efforts to inform law enforcement services about the existence of trafficking and drug trafficking gangs, as the information remains insufficient despite Croatia being an important transit and destination country, according to recent data.
Greece
28. Expresses concern over the underrepresentation of women in elected bodies, the government, trade unions, and political parties; with its poor performance on this issue, Greece ranks last among the 25 Member States of expanded Europe; urges the government, political parties, and relevant authorities to strengthen their efforts for balanced representation of men and women in political and economic decision-making processes.
FYROM
29. notes that, practically, there are no appropriate mechanisms for the full implementation of legislative provisions on gender equality; the existing legislation itself does not introduce discrimination, but neither does it address discrimination as a problem, resulting in the inability to provide direct and substantial protection for women; observes that this is due to stereotypes about the different roles of the two sexes with deep roots in tradition;
30. expresses its sorrow that sexual abuse of girls by family members is not considered a problem in FYROM, although data from social work agencies show that this type of violence is particularly widespread, especially in villages and among members of the Albanian minority and the Roma minority;
31. emphasizes that the legislation of FYROM does not explicitly mention the crime of trafficking in women, which significantly hinders the effective prosecution of the individuals involved; urges its government to develop legislation and standards in this area;
Romania
32. notes with concern that Romania is heavily affected by the phenomenon of human trafficking, as a country of origin, transit, and destination, despite the adoption of the 2001 law on combating trafficking; points out that the judicial system in Romania faces the problem of a lack of resources and urges the authorities to organize, in cooperation with the Commission and NGOs, more awareness campaigns focusing primarily on prevention and potential trafficking victims;
33. expresses its sorrow that a large number of ethnically motivated crimes against Roma women continue to be committed in Romania; calls on the Romanian authorities to take all necessary measures to prevent these crimes and urges the Commission to place special emphasis on this issue in the context of the EU accession negotiations;
34. expresses its sorrow that women continue to be underrepresented in political life while simultaneously making up the majority of the unemployed and being more severely affected by poverty than men, particularly in minorities such as the Roma or among individuals over the age of 45; calls on the Romanian government to make use of the funding opportunities provided by the EU to reduce the number of unemployed women and promote female employment;
35. points out that there are still a number of issues that need to be addressed by the state, such as the lack of information on contraception or the unavailability of contraceptive measures, the high rates of domestic violence, the dire situation of women belonging to minorities, and the forced marriage of underage girls; calls on the government of Romania to take the necessary measures and accelerate the process of compliance with the European acquis;
Serbia and Montenegro
36. condemns the collapse of the trial of the Deputy Prosecutor of Montenegro and three other men for involvement in a case of sexual slavery following the discontinuation of their prosecution by the prosecutor’s office, despite the existence of obvious and detailed evidence and the testimony of the victim;
37. demands the compliance of the governments of Serbia and Montenegro with the minimum standards for the elimination of human trafficking and the approval of measures to address widespread corruption;
38. seeks an explanation for the apparent increase in the trafficking of women following the arrival of KFOR forces in Kosovo and for the involvement of members of international law enforcement forces in trafficking cases; calls for the criminal prosecution and conviction of individuals involved in trafficking cases;
Turkey
39. expresses its concern that domestic violence and other forms of violence against women remain frequent; urges Turkey to ensure full legislative protection, as well as judicial and financial support, for victims, and to take steps to establish shelters and similar structures, which are currently virtually nonexistent; calls on the Commission to continue closely monitoring developments in this area;
40. calls on Turkey to establish gender equality within the framework of the sixth package of criminal code reforms – Article 51 of the general provisions – which refers to crimes committed under extreme provocation and applies to offenses traditionally considered to be against virtue; calls for an end to the practice of reduced sentences in cases of “honor” crimes based on morals and tradition (Article 462), considering that such crimes should be treated as intentional homicide, and for the removal of the term “virginity” from the provisions of the criminal code concerning the crime of rape;
41. considers forced marriage, a practice still applied in Turkey, as a violation of fundamental rights and a form of violence against women; calls on Turkey to fight for the elimination of this widespread practice;
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42. entrusts its President with the task of forwarding this resolution to the Council and the Commission, the governments and parliaments of the countries concerned, the candidate countries, and the countries of the Stabilization and Association Process, as well as to the Special Coordinator for the Stability Pact.
EXPLANATORY REPORT.
In the last fifteen years, the region of Southeastern Europe has been marked by deep and often dramatic social, economic, and political changes, within the framework of political and economic transition, crises, and wars. These events have affected some of the countries in the region in various ways; there has been an increase in both legal and illegal migration, a slowdown in economic growth and development, an increase in organized crime, etc. Today, the most difficult period seems to be over, but many problems remain to be solved. Despite the existence of numerous different reports and processes regarding the relations between the countries of Southeastern Europe and the EU, as well as regarding the progress of all these countries in the field of women’s rights and equal opportunities, all the countries in the region face similar and persistent problems.
The report is based on a recent study commissioned by the European Parliament, which analyzes the situation in all the countries of the Western Balkans (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, FYROM, Serbia, and Montenegro), the three candidate countries (Bulgaria, Romania, and Turkey), and Greece[1].
The countries of Southeastern Europe have a heterogeneous ethnic composition. This heterogeneity increases in some countries and decreases in others. It is important to take into account that various ethnic groups and minorities are still not statistically recorded, and that many methodological problems, which affect the data on the respect for women’s rights, have yet to be resolved.
Gender is still defined based on differences rather than similarities. Gender roles are clearly distinct, and the standards promoted do not equally represent both genders[2]. Religions play an important role in the differentiation of gender roles.
The implementation of changes that improve the status of women, which takes place at a slow pace, often encounters customs, traditions, codes of honor, and traditional practices[3]. One practice, for example, that survives in Turkey is the so-called “honor crimes.” The term is used to describe the killing of a woman suspected of violating the behavioral rules and prohibitions imposed by tradition on female sexuality, such as engaging in premarital relations with a man or committing adultery.
Trafficking of women
Human trafficking is nowadays one of the most complex issues related to the protection of human rights and requires immediate attention, while having significant implications for the stability and consolidation of democracy and the rule of law in Southeastern Europe. This “sex industry,” integrated into the framework of international organized crime, has experienced significant growth in recent years. Southeastern Europe has repeatedly been characterized as a region particularly vulnerable to this phenomenon and a region severely affected by widespread prostitution and the sexual exploitation of women and children. Recent updated research[4] provides an overview of the region in this area and the situation in each country individually. The dimensions of the problem are often highlighted through incidents that come to public attention, such as the recent political scandal that erupted in Montenegro when a woman from Moldova, a victim of human trafficking, identified well-known politicians as “clients” and/or involved in the “sex trade.”
One of the most striking features of the phenomenon is that there are rarely any attempts to cover up these activities. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the trafficking of women takes place in a large “black market” near the town of Brcko. The main “markets for women” in Serbia are located in areas near the borders, in southern Serbia (near the administrative borders of Kosovo), in eastern Serbia, and in northern Vojvodina. The number of underage girls who are victims of trafficking is also increasing. Women and girls are sold for approximately 250-500 US dollars. Often, entire families in border regions are involved in trafficking networks (the IOM mission in FYROM presented similar data in 2001). Women from Romania and Moldova have testified that they were sold from one brothel owner to another, that they were held captive under the pretext of debts, that they were beaten, and that they were forced to work in a brothel in Kosovo, serving 10-15 clients a night (NGOs, Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), Serbia).
It is estimated that 90% of foreign workers in the sex industry in the Balkan countries are victims of human trafficking.[5]. . Human trafficking is generally on the rise, but in areas where the risks are lower due to high levels of corruption, such as in the Balkan countries, there is a real surge in the phenomenon. The low level of danger and high profits combine with a significant increase in demand for sexual services, partly due to the presence of international peacekeeping forces in the Balkans. The most significant consequence of human trafficking is the loss of public trust in institutions and the fostering of an environment that promotes the exploitation of women, with long-term negative effects on the overall position of women in society.
The main trafficking routes followed by traffickers are from Moldova, Ukraine, and other former Soviet republics through Romania and Bulgaria, the states of the former Yugoslavia, and Albania to Greece, Italy, and Western Europe. They often follow the same routes used for the trafficking of weapons and drugs. Croatia, for example, is primarily a transit country. In contrast, the problem is very pronounced in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo, particularly after the deployment of peacekeeping forces[6].
The lack of coordination and cohesion in the efforts to combat human trafficking and its tragic consequences led to the establishment of the Task Force on Human Trafficking on September 18, 2000. The task force was created within the framework of the Stability Pact for Southeastern Europe[7].
Violence against women
Violence against women and misogyny are closely linked to society’s tolerance of violence in general, especially in countries that have recently faced wars, dependency, and poverty. Violence, war, and poverty create a vicious cycle for women and children who are victims, but also for many men who are perpetrators.
Customs and traditions in the countries of Southeastern Europe often favor violent behavior towards women (and children), and the entire issue is covered by a veil of shame that prevents women from resisting and demanding respect for their basic human rights. Public sensitivity to issues of violence is still low, and there is a lack or insufficiency of meaningful and appropriate institutional support.
Domestic violence is a problem of tragic proportions, which for the most part is not properly addressed or dealt with. The problem takes on larger dimensions given the very large number of people involved and its significant spread.
The main problem that greatly hinders the fight against violence against women is the high level of acceptance of this form of violence by society and the lack of appropriate institutions to protect victims. The role of the media in cultivating and perpetuating a “culture of violence” has not yet been adequately studied or recognized.
Health
It is surprising that there is little data regarding the nature of the health problems faced by women, the policy measures taken to address them, and the results so far of international assistance.
Particular attention should be given to the striking negative trends in reproductive health. There is ample evidence that women belonging to minorities and the majority of women in rural areas are more exposed to health risks.
The main problems are the overall poor condition of healthcare structures and the difficulty women face in accessing them. Despite the efforts of many organizations in the region and the reforms promoted by governments, investments in public health and healthcare systems are decreasing.
Economic life
Women represent the minority of the employed and, in most countries, the majority of the unemployed. This is due, on the one hand, to the overall poor economic situation and, on the other hand, to prejudices and the traditional exclusion of women from economic life.
Despite the increase in the participation rate of women in education — with women making up the vast majority of primary and secondary school teachers — women are underrepresented in universities and face greater difficulties than men in finding employment after graduation. Women are usually found in lower-ranking positions in universities and the labor market.
It is also observed that wages in sectors predominantly employing women are lower. The fact that poverty is largely a “female issue” leads women to accept jobs with unfavorable economic conditions, often in the informal economy (flexible and undeclared employment).
In many cases, women workers face harassment and discrimination, either overt or covert, in the workplace or, if self-employed, in the male-dominated market.
Women continue to bear the primary responsibility for family care, in line with traditional norms, even though legislation in most countries encourages greater male participation in family life. In none of the countries under consideration are adequate childcare services provided.
Political life
In the countries of Southeastern Europe, women are largely excluded from positions of political decision-making, in parliament, the government, trade unions, or political parties. The actual percentage of their participation in the political decision-making processes is rather disappointing in most of these countries. During the period of 2000-2001, elections were held in almost all the countries of Southeastern Europe. The average representation of women in legislative bodies was around 7%. However, there are some positive examples, such as those of Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Kosovo, where the percentage of female parliamentarians exceeded 30%.
The most important aspect of changes in the political life of the countries of Southeastern Europe concerns the increase in the so-called “critical mass” of citizens who participate in the processes, particularly women, who are increasingly involved and gaining greater ability to exert political pressure, both within their countries and abroad, at the EU level or in the international community. It is evident that the focus of the international community on the countries of the region creates the conditions for an increase in women’s participation in politics and more broadly in public life, but the mentality, the patriarchal structure of societies, and traditions pose significant obstacles.
Women who participate in public life often become targets of chauvinistic attacks and harsh criticism, accused of violating traditional rules that expect women to obediently follow the demands of their families. An example of such an attack was directed at Gülbahar Gündüz, the representative of the DEHAP party in Istanbul, who on June 14, 2003, was abducted, raped, and tortured by individuals who claimed to be police officers.
A positive trend observed in all the countries under review is the increasing number of women’s NGOs, which, however, often face significant financial problems and a lack of specialized staff. Most of these organizations are not truly autonomous but depend heavily on aid sponsors, whose number is decreasing, and on various international funding programs, which increases the competition among them. In this regard, it is worth mentioning the activities of the gender task force within the framework of the Stability Pact for the Western Balkans.
Conclusion
Despite the significant differences identified between the countries under review, several similarities are also observed. The progressive integration into the EU structures is and will remain the main short-term or long-term goal of the policies of all countries in Southeastern Europe. Official policy is focused on EU accession, which is often used by governments as an argument in favor of the reforms they propose. This is often reflected in the stance of the political and administrative elite. The close contacts between the Community and this “elite” have contributed to the region’s development. However, dialogue and mutual understanding are not enough to ensure the reform of legislation in the right direction and the correct implementation of the law. The EU must continue its efforts to ensure respect for women’s rights, an issue that has not received the due attention in the majority of the countries under review. Special efforts must be made to recognize women’s rights, precisely due to the negative attitude towards them, stemming from the patriarchal organization of societies, traditions, and customs in the region.
It is necessary to recognize the interaction between the many different factors that affect the status of women in Southeastern Europe. This situation should be the subject of extensive awareness campaigns to raise public awareness and to incorporate a gender perspective in education. Particularly important will be the development of a new educational system, legislative reform, and its popularization so that it can be understood by society. Gender equality in public life certainly contributes decisively to achieving equality in private life.
Furthermore, the role of women’s NGOs is particularly important, and they should be assigned more responsibilities. A preventive approach must be adopted instead of the reactive approach currently followed to combat phenomena such as human trafficking and domestic violence. Despite the significant role that NGOs can play in addressing the consequences of these issues, only strong institutions can manage their prevention.
1 ΕΕ C 16 E, 22.1.2004, p. 98.
2 P5_TA(2003)0523.
[1] M. Blagojević, “The Situation of Women in the Balkan Countries: A Comparative Perspective,” Belgrade, February 2003.
[2] A Romanian study on the impact of curriculum reform in schools showed, for example, that in primary school science textbooks, there were references to 26 personalities, of which only two were women, while in history textbooks, out of the 116 names mentioned, only two were again female.
[3] According to the Turkish Civil Code, a condition for marriage is the consent of both the man and the woman. However, in many cases, women in Southeastern Turkey have no say in the choice of their husband and are often forced into marriage against their will. Even in cases where the woman’s consent is sought, the right to give consent cannot be fully exercised due to the high level of social control over women’s sexuality through the strict prohibition of premarital sexual relationships, the practice of consanguinity, or the threat of violence against women who do not comply with the family’s choices.
[4] http://www.unhchr.ch/women/trafficking.pdf
[5] See above, footnote 1.
[6] The Ministry of the Interior of the FRY has repeatedly stated that Kosovo has become a “paradise for traffickers,” accusing the UNMIK mission in Kosovo for this situation. The Ministry of Justice, Migration, and Naturalization (2002) presented data on the existence of 85 brothels in Kosovo. UNMIK imposed severe penalties on traffickers – up to 20 years in prison. On the other hand, reports from Human Rights Watch (2001) indicate that the enforcement of these regulations in practice is progressing very slowly, with very few cases of prosecution. Additionally, the UN punished four officers of the civil police force for alleged involvement in trafficking rings. There is concrete evidence of the involvement of members of the international police force in trafficking rings in Bosnia (Human Rights Watch, 2001, FOW, 2001).
[7] Because its mission largely concerns the protection of human rights, the activities of the operational team are also closely linked to those of the Working Group I (democratization and human rights) and take into account the social and economic causes of trafficking. Due to the complexity of the issue, the activities of the operational team are coordinated with those of other related initiatives within the framework of the Stability Pact, such as the operational team on gender issues under the Stability Pact, the Stability Pact initiative to combat organized crime, and the Stability Pact initiative to combat corruption.